Post-Mauryan India (BC 200- AD 300) - UPSC Study Notes

Post-Mauryan India (BC 200- AD 300)

This period marks a crucial transition from large empires to regional kingdoms, significant foreign invasions, and profound socio-religious changes.

1. Evolution of Jatis

The post-Mauryan period witnessed the solidification of the varna system into numerous jatis (sub-castes). This evolution was driven by:

Occupational Specialization: Growth in crafts and trade led to new occupational groups (e.g., goldsmiths, weavers) organizing into jatis.
Assimilation of Foreigners & Tribes: Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushans, and various tribal groups were integrated into Indian society as new jatis (e.g., Yavanas as a jati).
Ritual and Marriage Rules: Endogamy (marriage within the group) and specific dietary rules became strictly enforced, defining jati boundaries.
Dharmaśāstras: Texts like Manusmriti (compiled circa 200 BCE-200 CE) provided a theoretical justification for the varna-jati hierarchy and its rules.

2. The Satavahanas (c. 1st Century BCE – 3rd Century CE)

Also known as the Andhras, they ruled over the Deccan and central India, with their power base in the Godavari-Krishna region.

Key Features:

Capital: Pratishthana (Paithan) on the Godavari; later also Amaravati.
Notable Rulers: Simuka (founder), Gautamiputra Satakarni (greatest ruler, defeated the Sakas), Vashishtiputra Pulamavi.
Administration: A feudal structure. Kings were called Rajas and claimed Brahmanical status. The kingdom was divided into Aharas (districts) under Amatyas.
Economy: Benefited from thriving trade between North and South India, and Roman trade via ports like Barygaza (Bharuch) and Muziris.
Patronage: Patrons of Brahmanism (performed Vedic sacrifices like Ashvamedha) and Buddhism (donated to stupas at Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda).
Language: Official language was Prakrit (used in inscriptions). The Hala's Gatha Saptasati is a famous Prakrit literary work.

[IMAGE: Map showing the extent of the Satavahana Empire with key trade routes and cities.]

3. Sangam Texts and Society (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE)

The Sangam literature, composed in Tamil, reflects the life and society of ancient Tamilakam (present-day Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala).

Key Aspects:

Three Sangams (Academies): Legendary assemblies of poets in Madurai. The works of the Third Sangam are extant.
Major Texts:
- Ettuttogai (Eight Anthologies) and Pattupattu (Ten Idylls) – poetic works.
- Tolkappiyam: A work on Tamil grammar and poetics, also mentions social divisions.
- Silappadikaram and Manimekalai: Later epic poems (post-300 CE) that provide social insights.
Social Structure:
- Tinai Concept: Ecological classification of land (Kurinji-hills, Mullai-forests, etc.), each associated with an occupation, god, and poetic theme.
- Society was divided into Uzhavar (farmers), Arasar (rulers), Vanigar (traders), and Vellalar (landowners).
- Women enjoyed a relatively high status; there were women poets like Avvaiyar.
Economy: Agriculture, pastoralism, and flourishing trade with the Roman Empire (evident from Roman coin hoards and mention of Yavanas).
Religion: Worship of local deities (Murugan, Kotravai), hero stones. Jainism and Buddhism also present.

4. Foreign Invasions and Kingdoms

This period saw successive waves of foreign rulers entering India through the northwest.

Dynasty	Period/Key Ruler	Capital/Region	Contributions/Significance
Indo-Greeks (Bactrian Greeks)	2nd-1st Cent. BCE Menander (Milinda)	Taxila, Punjab	Introduction of Hellenistic art (Gandhara school). Coins: First to issue portrait coins in India with Greek legends. Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda) – Buddhist text discussing dialogues between Menander and Nagasena.
Sakas (Indo-Scythians)	1st Cent. BCE-4th Cent. CE Rudradaman I	Ujjain (Western Kshatrapas)	Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman (150 CE) – First long inscription in chaste Sanskrit; mentions repair of Sudarshana Lake. Ruled over Gujarat, Malwa, Kathiawar.
Parthians (Indo-Parthians)	1st Cent. CE Gondophernes	Taxila	Short-lived rule. Associated with the (apocryphal) visit of St. Thomas the Apostle to India.
Kushans	1st-3rd Cent. CE Kanishka (c. 127-150 CE)	Purushapura (Peshawar) Mathura (Secondary)	Originated from Central Asia (Yuezhi tribe). Controlled the Silk Route, leading to economic prosperity. Patrons of Mahayana Buddhism (4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir). Art: Gandhara (Greco-Buddhist) and Mathura schools flourished. Introduced gold coins on a large scale. Kanishka's Era: Started in 78 CE, basis for the Saka Era used by Govt. of India.

[VIDEO: "Kushan Empire and Kanishka UPSC"]

5. Contacts with the Outer World

The period was marked by extensive cultural and economic exchanges.

Trade:
- Land Route (Silk Road): Kushanas controlled this, facilitating trade between China, India, and the Roman Empire.
- Sea Route: Robust trade with the Roman Empire. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st cent. CE Greek text) and Pliny's Natural History mention Indian ports and goods.
- Exports: Spices, pearls, ivory, silk, precious stones.
- Imports: Roman gold and silver coins (found in hoards in South India), wine, luxury items.
Cultural Exchange:
- Introduction of new art styles (Gandhara), coinage techniques, and clothing (e.g., tunics, trousers).
- Spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and China via Kushan territories.
- Indian knowledge (astronomy, mathematics) traveled westwards.

6. Religious Developments

Hinduism:

Bhagavatism (Early Vaishnavism): Centered on the worship of Vasudeva Krishna. The Bhagavad Gita (composed around this time) synthesized devotion (bhakti), knowledge, and action. Heliodorus Pillar (Vidisha, c. 113 BCE) of a Greek ambassador calls himself a Bhagavata.
Saivism: Worship of Shiva, represented by the linga, gained prominence. Lakulisha, a prominent teacher, is associated with Pashupata sect.

Buddhism:

Division: Split into Hinayana (Theravada - "Lesser Vehicle") and Mahayana ("Greater Vehicle").
Mahayana Buddhism: Emerged around 1st century BCE/CE.
- Belief in Bodhisattvas (enlightened beings who delay nirvana to help others).
- Worship of Buddha images and proliferation of stupa architecture.
- Philosophical texts: Prajnaparamita (Perfection of Wisdom) sutras.
- Kanishka was a great patron; the 4th Buddhist Council under him formalized Mahayana doctrines.

Jainism:

Split into Digambara (sky-clad) and Svetambara (white-clad) sects around 300 CE (or earlier).
Flourished in Karnataka, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu (Sangam texts mention Jain ascetics).
First council at Pataliputra (c. 3rd cent. BCE) and second at Vallabhi (c. 5th cent. CE) compiled Jain canons.

7. Culture and Art

Architecture:
- Rock-cut Architecture: Proliferation of chaityas (prayer halls) and viharas (monasteries). Eg: Karle, Bhaja, Kanheri (Maharashtra).
- Stupas: Elaboration of earlier stupas at Sanchi (Satavahana period gateways), Amaravati, and Bharhut.
Sculpture:
- Mathura School: Indigenous style using red sandstone. Produced images of Buddha, Jain Tirthankaras, and Hindu deities (like Yakshas/Yakshinis).
- Gandhara School: Greco-Roman influence, grey/bluish-grey sandstone/schist. Focus on realistic human form, wavy hair, drapery.
- Amaravati School: Developed under Satavahanas in Krishna-Godavari region. White marble, dynamic narratives, and slender figures.
Literature: Sanskrit literature flourished (e.g., early Puranas, Manusmriti). Ashvaghosha (court poet of Kanishka) wrote Buddhacharita (epic on Buddha's life) and Saundarananda.

[IMAGE: Comparison chart of Mathura, Gandhara, and Amaravati school features.]

[VIDEO: "Post-Mauryan Art and Architecture for UPSC"]

Answer Writing Points (Mains)

Introduction: Frame the period (200 BCE-300 CE) as a dynamic epoch of political fragmentation, foreign integrations, and socio-religious ferment that laid the groundwork for classical Indian civilization.
Political Landscape: Briefly contrast the centralized Mauryan rule with the regional powers (Satavahanas in Deccan, foreign dynasties in NW) and highlight the significance of the Kushan Empire in stabilizing North India and bridging trade routes.
Socio-Economic Changes: Discuss the crystallization of the jati system due to occupational diversification and assimilation of foreigners. Highlight the booming inland and international trade (with Rome), urbanization, and the role of guilds (shrenis).
Religious Transformations: Analyze the key shifts: the rise of Mahayana Buddhism with its Bodhisattva ideal and the growth of Bhagavata and Saiva sects emphasizing personal devotion (bhakti). Mention the continued relevance of Jainism.
Cultural Synthesis: Emphasize the syncretic nature of the period. Discuss Gandhara art as a fusion of Hellenistic and Indian ideals, the development of Sanskrit and Prakrit literature, and the architectural marvels of rock-cut caves and stupas. Link foreign rulers' patronage to this cultural efflorescence.
Conclusion & Legacy: Conclude that this period was not a "dark age" but one of significant integration and innovation. Its legacy includes the basic structure of Hindu society, the spread of Buddhism abroad, and artistic styles that influenced subsequent centuries.

Chapter 8: Post-Mauryan India (BC 200- AD 300)