Advent of Europeans in India, Map, UPSC Notes

Advent of Europeans in India

Vasco da Gama and the Advent of Europeans

The arrival of Vasco da Gama in 1498 marked the beginning of direct European contact with India, establishing a sea route that sparked intense competition among European powers for trade and territory. This period initiated centuries of European influence, reshaping India's social, economic, and political landscape through cultural exchange, conflict, and eventual colonial rule.

Vasco da Gama arrived in Caelicut (Kozhikode) in 1498, establishing a direct sea route between Europe and India.
His arrival opened the door to European colonialism and trade domination in the subcontinent.
Other European powers—Dutch, English, and French—soon followed, leading to fierce competition for the lucrative spice trade.
The period involved the establishment of trading posts, fortifications, and cultural exchanges, laying the foundation for European colonial rule.

The Advent of The Portuguese

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in India, initiating the era of European colonialism. Their efforts were driven by the search for trade routes, religious zeal, and competition, leading to the establishment of a significant but eventually declining presence.

Portuguese arrival marked the beginning of European colonialism in the Indian subcontinent.

Factors behind the Portuguese Voyage to India

Several geopolitical and cultural factors in the 15th century motivated Portuguese exploration towards India, including the disruption of traditional land routes and a new spirit of maritime adventure.

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Arabs controlled trade routes, cutting off easy European access to Indian goods.
The spirit of the Renaissance and advancements in shipbuilding fueled a desire for adventurous sea voyages to the East.
The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the non-Christian world between Portugal and Spain, granting Portugal the eastern territories.

The Portuguese Governors

A succession of Portuguese governors implemented policies to consolidate trade monopolies and territorial control in India, with varying degrees of success and conflict with local powers.

Vasco da Gama: Arrived in Calicut in 1498. He was initially welcomed by the Zamorin (Hindu ruler) but faced opposition from Arab traders. He returned in 1501 seeking to exclude Arab merchants.
Francisco de Almeida (1505-1509): Appointed Governor with a mission to consolidate Portuguese influence and destroy Muslim trade. He advocated the Blue Water Policy (Cartaze system), aiming for naval mastery of the Indian Ocean.
Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509-1515): Established strategic Portuguese bases. He captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 (first European-controlled Indian territory since Alexander the Great). He introduced a permit system for ships and abolished sati.
Nino da Cunha (1529-1538): Moved the Portuguese headquarters from Cochin to Goa. Secured Bassein from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat in 1534. Relations soured, leading to Bahadur Shah's death by the Portuguese in 1537. He also tried to increase Portuguese influence in Bengal with Hooghly as a base.

Decline of the Portuguese

By the 18th century, Portuguese commercial and political influence in India waned due to rising local powers, unsuccessful religious policies, and military defeats.

They lost their local advantages as powerful dynasties emerged in Egypt, Persia, and North India.
The Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein from the Portuguese in 1739.
Their religious policies and conversion efforts, including the activities of the Jesuits and the Inquisition in Goa, caused resentment among Hindus and Muslims.

Significance of the Portuguese

Despite their decline, the Portuguese left a lasting impact on India through military, agricultural, and maritime innovations, though their religious policies were often intolerant.

Emergence of naval power: Marked the beginning of the European era in Indian Ocean trade.
Military innovations: Introduced body armour, matchlock men, and ship-based guns in 16th century Malabar.
Maritime techniques: Used heavily constructed multi-decked ships capable of carrying heavier armament.
Organisational skills: Established royal arsenals, dockyards, and a regular system of pilots and mapping.
Religious Policy: Arrived with zeal to promote Christianity and persecute Muslims. Tolerance towards Hindus decreased over time, especially after the Inquisition in Goa.
Agricultural introductions: Introduced crops from the Americas like chillies, potatoes, tomatoes, cashew nuts, pineapple, and papaya, transforming Indian agriculture and cuisine.

The Advent of The Dutch

The Dutch entered Indian trade through a powerful, state-backed company, establishing key settlements but eventually being overshadowed by the English.

The East India Company of the Netherlands was formed in 1602 by merging various trading companies. It had powers to wage war, make treaties, and acquire territories.
They established control over Masulipatnam in 1605 and a settlement at Pulicat in 1610.

The Advent of The English

The English East India Company, established by royal charter, gradually secured trading rights and territories through diplomacy, conflict, and negotiation with Indian rulers and other European powers.

In 1599, the 'Merchant Adventurers' formed a company to pursue Eastern trade.
Queen Elizabeth I issued a charter on December 31, 1600, granting exclusive trading rights to the 'Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies.'

Foothold in West and South

The English established their initial presence on the western and southern coasts of India through a combination of naval victory, negotiation, and royal gift.

Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir’s court in 1609 but failed to secure a factory at Surat due to Portuguese opposition.
English trading began at Masulipatnam in 1611; a factory was established there in 1616.
After Captain Thomas Best defeated the Portuguese in the battle of Surat (1612), Jahangir granted permission for an English factory in Surat in 1613.
Bombay was gifted to King Charles II in 1662 and given to the East India Company in 1668, becoming its headquarters in 1687.
In Madras, they obtained privileges from the Sultan of Golconda and built a fortified factory at Madras in 1639, which became the headquarters in South India.

Foothold in Bengal

Bengal's prosperity attracted the English, who secured a permanent and fortified settlement that would become the center of British power in India.

In 1651, Shah Shuja, the subahdar of Bengal, granted the English permission to trade in Bengal for an annual payment.
After hostilities with the Mughals (sacking of Hooghly in 1686), Job Charnock signed a treaty in 1690, allowing a factory at Sutanuti.
In 1698, the English bought the zamindari of Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and Kalikata.
The fortified settlement was named Fort William in 1700, becoming the seat of the eastern presidency (Calcutta).

The Advent of The French

The French arrived later than other Europeans and established their primary base at Pondicherry, engaging in prolonged rivalry with the English for influence.

The French East India Company (Compagnie des Indes Orientales) was established in 1664 under Louis XIV and Minister Colbert, receiving a 50-year monopoly.
It was reorganized as the 'Perpetual Company of the Indies' in 1720.
Pondicherry, founded in 1674, became the nerve centre of French power in India.

The Advent of The Danes

The Danish presence in India was minor, focused more on missionary activities than commerce, and their settlements were eventually sold to the British.

The Danish East India Company was established in 1616 and 1620.
They founded a factory at Tranquebar and their principal settlement was at Serampore near Calcutta.
Danish factories were sold to the British government in 1845.
They are better known for their missionary activities than for commerce.

Reasons for English success against other Europeans

England's ultimate dominance in India resulted from a combination of superior naval power, stable governance, military discipline, and a pragmatic approach to religion and finance.

Structure and nature of trading companies: The English East India Company was controlled by a board of directors elected annually, with influential shareholders.
Naval superiority: Britain's Royal Navy was the largest and most advanced in Europe.
Industrial Revolution: England led in inventions and advancements in textiles, metallurgy, and steam power.
Military skill and discipline: British soldiers were highly disciplined and commanders used innovative tactics.
Stable Government: Britain had relatively stable governance, unlike France during the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.
Lesser zeal for religion: Britain was more tolerant in spreading Christianity, making its rule more acceptable locally.
Use of debt market: Britain funded wars through the Bank of England and debt markets.

Chapter 1